From Hispaniola to Haiti...

Haitian Flag

January 1, 1804 is the date which marked the true end of the colony of Saint-Domingue, and the beginning of the Republic of Haiti. The Period of Haiti's decolonization is defined by events which took place surrounding the transition, as well as the tensions which existed between Haiti and other Carribean areas, as well as the Country of France.

The decolonization of Haiti meant that under the new leadership of men like Jean-Jaques Desslines, a new world order impended upon the inhabitants...well...an attempt at a new order, anyway. The colonists found out all too quickly that without the sugar production-provided by the mass amounts of slavery- the Haitian economy would suffer. Even today, the Haitian economy has yet to recover to the Jewel of the Antilles that it once was.

For a list of Haitian leaders from the Beginning, click here: http://www.haiti.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=67&Itemid=114

There was an attempt by France to reunify the two sides of Hispaniola in 1825. Charles X of France sent troops by the thousands, and over a dozen vessels to the island, forcing the then President, Jean-Pierre Boyer to sign a treaty.




 

  Charles X of France

  

  



Jean-Pierre Boyer


France would then formally recognize Haiti as an independent entity for a sum of 150 million francs (this would later be reduced to 90 million). For my part, I believe this was a bit of a slap in the face to slaves who had already lost their lives and their loved ones due to the Revoltution.

Since said Revolution, the Republic of Haiti has been stricken by everything from dictatorships to natural disaters. The Parsley Massacre of 1937 killed approximately 30,000 Haitians on the Dominican Republic boarder at the instruction of Rafael LeonidasTrujillo, the dictator known as "El Jefe." (who would be assassinated in 1961) Trujillo's goal was to "deafricanize" the Dominican Republic, promoting it as a white-hispanic society.

Trujillo 

^^^Hurricanes, cholera, and earthquakes in the past few years have left millions of Haitians homeless, penniless, sick, or dead. Other Nations seem to be attempting to lend a hand

Still, the colony once known as the "Jewel of the Antilles" remains destitute and is one of the poorest Nations in the world.... 

www.youtube.com
images.google.com
www.haiti.org
Wucker, Michelle. The River Massacre: The Real and Imagined Borders of Hispaniola. Tikkun Magazine: November 1998. Google Scholar.
     columbiasecondary.org.

The Haitian Revolution

As one of the most densely-populated areas of the Caribbean, the western part of the island of Hispaniola (Saint-Domingue), also had one of the highest ratio of slaves to freemen. The large, enslaved, black population on the Island was becoming aware of revolutions for freedom that were occurring around the world, especially, the French Revolution.

In continental France, documents such as “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen,” contained the Slaves of Saint-Domingue were inspired by these bold words, and on August 21st of 1791, the thoughts and fears of revolt came to fruition.  

The small white population was quickly and easily overcome by the violence.  

Some owners were fortunate enough to be warned by their slaves of the impending attacks, but most were brutally, and fatally effected. Thousands of whites died, and plantations were pillaged; burned to the ground.

Who were the important players in the Revolution?

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Napoleon Bonaparte

Henri Christophe

Leger-Felicite Sonthonax

A brief rundown of their interactions:

In an attempt to preserve the French economical interest in the island, the French Assembly sent 6,000 soldiers onto the isle. The Spanish joined the side of the slaves, and then, the British arrived on the island.
Once that happened, some slaves decided to fight for the French, provided that all of the slaves would be granted their freedom. French Civil Commissioner (and abolitionist), Leger-Felicite Sonthonax declared that this would be the case if the French found victory in the battle for the possession of Saint-Domingue. Fore-runners in this group of slaves were Toussaint L'Ouverture and Henri Christophe. Like most, he was a former slave who had originally fought for the Spanish. Under his command, the British expeditionary forces were defeated, and by his hand, (as well as the hands of a few French generals) the slaves were freed on January 3rd of 1801.
L'Ouverture created the Saint-Domingue constitution, which- among other things- claimed that he would be governor for life. When Napoleon heard of this, he sent an army (led by Charles Leclerq). L'Ouverture was betrayed by his closest allies (namely Jean-Jacques Dessalines), and was captured. He was shipped to France, and died in prison. Unbeknownst to L'Ouverture's former allies, Napoleon was intent upon resorting slavery. When Dessalines found out, he deflected back to his original side. On the first day of 1804, -after a trying battle against the French colonial army- Dessalines declared Saint-Domingue's independence, renaming it Haiti.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

With the Haitian victory came the founding of the Republic of Haiti.

A few quick facts about Haiti:

* The Republic motto comes from the revolutionaries of the French Revolution: "Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite"

*The Republic's Anthem is: "La Dessalinienne" (...click the video below to listen)



* The official languages are French and Haitian Creole

* The capital of Haiti is Port-au-Prince

With the conclusion of the Revolution, Dessalines was made "Emperor for Life." This proved to be a poor idea, and Haiti had to be reunified in the North by Henri Christophe. Christophe instituted a Corvee system, and when THAT did not entirely work (it highly resembles slavery), Haiti went through a series of government types and leaders. Perhaps the most notable leader for reuniting the Republic was Jean Pierre Boyer (President of Haiti from 1818 to 1843).

With the dissolution of the Sugar-based, plantation hierarchy, the economy suffered. Unfortunately, the island is still not financially sound. It is one of the poorest countries in the world today. This has been worsened by biological and environmental issues. 

Sources:  

http://www.jacobite.ca/documents/1697ryswick.htm Articles from the Treaty of Ryswick

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Images 

http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/335/ The Code Noir

Garrigus, John."Before Haiti: Race and Citizens in Saint-Domingue." [New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002].

http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Shaw, Jenny. "Haitian Revolution." Class Lecture, November 2.

Harvest Time on River Road

Today, we took a little trip to St. James Parish for the purpose of visiting the newly-renovated plantation, "Perique." Previously known as "Little Texas," the house has undergone a series of facelifts and interior re-decorations since Hurricane Katrina. Proud owner, Michael Hopping, was kind enough to give us a tour of his charming home.

Before...

http://gest.la.gov/hp/laheritage/CreoleHeritage/Color/Creole28.jpg

Click below for the "after"- as well as a marvelous write-up on the Creole-Style house...
http://countryroadsmagazine.com/Countrypolitans/michael-hoppings-unplanned-plantation

So excited to see the house and meet our gracious tour guide, I had forgotten that it's Harvest time in the sugarland. I was quickly reminded of the time of year, when our car crept onto River Road.
...I'm not entirely sure why the dates on the pictures are wrong...I'm still not as tech-savvy as I'd like to be...

We pulled over onto one of the gravel roads, for a better view-

our gravel road...

Louisiana sugarcane...good thing I wore boots! -I was careful not to run into any cane snakes...



In the background, you can see River Road and the Levee (the river is on the other side)- every inch of available land is used for planting, right up to the road!

stagnant machine...

...and it wasn't long before we saw some active harvesting

and finally, while we were in the area, we stopped at one of our favorite destinations (usually reserved for our Christmas visit)...Houmas House. At one time, it held the honor of most prolific sugar plantation.

Houmas House

For more information on River Road, might I suggest this site?: http://louisianatravel.com/river-road-plantations

A Day in the Life of a Slave girl (created by me, inspired by the life of Mary Prince)

Je suis appelé Perrine. Je suis un esclave à Orléans Plantation, sur l'île de Saint-Domingue. Je suis né sur cette terre. Je ne connais pas mon père. Ma mère dit qu'il est blanc. Maman travaille dans la maison de notre Maître est avec moi. Elle ne ménage et la cuisine pour M. Delacroix et sa famille. Chaque matin, je me réveille avec ma mère. Nous nous habillons. La mère est sûr de couvrir les cicatrices sur ses épaules et le cou du mieux qu'elle peut. Elle dit qu'ils sont de quand elle a essayé de s'enfuir dans les champs de sel à un homme marron, Mackanal. C'était avant que je suis né, avant de Mama a été vendue à M. Delacroix.



M. Delacroix a une fille. Elle est mon âge et ressemble un peu à moi, mais elle a la peau claire. Parce que je suis son compagnon, je peux aller avec elle à ses leçons quotidiennes. Je dois aider ma mère nettoyer et cuisiner, surtout quand monsieur a des visiteurs. Maman dit que nous devons être très prudents parce que nous travaillons dans la maison principale. Nous pouvons vivre de plus beaux quartiers et obtenir des privilèges spéciaux, mais nous sommes également en danger immédiat. La semaine dernière, un homme est venu visiter la maison. Il a été d'un endroit appelé Bristol, et il m'a trouvé quand j'étais seul dans la cuisine après le souper. Il se sur moi et me regarda et tira la manche de ma robe. J'ai été effrayé. Puis, j'ai entendu M. Delacroix appelle nom de l'homme. J'étais tellement content qu'il a laissé. Maman m'a dit de faire attention aux hommes comme cela. Elle s'inquiétait que qu'ils allaient me blesser comme ils l'ont blessé.



Tant de gens se blessent ici. Les hommes se promener les bras et les jambes manquent. D'autres, comme Mama ont des cicatrices. J'espère que personne ne se blesse demain. Surtout pas maman. Je n'ai pas été blessé, mais je crains que quand je suis plus âgé, je vais avoir des cicatrices comme maman, ou même perdre une partie de ma personne.


---- in english...

Good day, Journal. I am called Perrine. I am a slave at Orleans Plantation, sur the island of Saint-Domingue. I was born on this land. I do not know my father. My mother says he is white. Mama works in our Master's house with me. She does cleaning and cooking for Monsieur Delacroix and his family. Every morning, I wake up with my mother. We dress. Mother is sure to cover the scars on her shoulders and neck as best as she can. She says they are from when she tried to run away from the salt fields to a maroon man, Mackanal. That was before I was born, before Mama was sold to Monsieur Delacroix.

Monsieur Delacroix has a daughter. She is my age and looks a little like me, but she has lighter skin. Because I am her companion, I get to go with her to her daily lessons. I have to help my mother clean and cook, especially when Monsieur has visitors. Mama says that we must be very careful because we work in the main house. We may live in nicer quarters and get special priviledges, but we are also in very immediate danger. Last week, a man came to visit the house. He was a from a place called Bristol, and he found me when I was alone in the kitchen after supper. He stood over me and looked at me and tugged the sleeve of my dress. I was frightened. Then, I heard Monsieur Delacroix call the man's name. I was so glad that he left. Mama told me to watch out for men like that. She worried that they would hurt me like they hurt her.

So many people get hurt here. Men walk around missing arms and legs. Others like Mama have scars. I hope nobody gets hurt tomorrow. Especially not Mama. I have not gotten hurt yet, but I fear that when I am older, I will have scars like Mama, or even lose a part of my person.


---
I created this entry based on slave stories such as Mary Prince. Many things are insinuated here. In the caribbean, slaves were forced into manual labors, and were abused physically and mentally. Did you notice the insinuations as to Perrine's father's identity? The dangers she faced? The bleak outlook she carried, though she had one of the better situations of many- especially that she was able to pick up so much on her mistress's education?

Races of Saint-Domingue...

Conveniently enough for me, the Island of Saint-Domingue was used as an example for racial studies in our Caribbean History class! I apologize in advance for the lack of pictures, but this post is mostly for the facts...

Here's how the population breaks down numerically:

Population total: 855,000
Whites: 30,000
Freemen/Gens de couleur: 25,000
Enslaved: 800,000

notice the extreme difference in the ratio between the number of enslaved persons to the rest of the population? ...yeah.

This is why, in 1758, planters began to pass legistlation that set restrictions on the rights of others. In their minds, this would solidify a system of castes. (a major precursor to the Haitian Revolution)

Now, for the categoric breakdown of the population:

Grand Blancs: the most wealthy, all-powerful, white slave-owners.
Petit Blancs: white merchants who, though wealthy, were not quite wealthy enough to be considered "grand blancs."
Gens de Couleur: free, colored men - usually the offspring of Franco-Afro couples.
Negroes: (also known as "esclaves" or "kongos") Africans considered only as slaves.

A foremost student of islandic racial makeup was Moreau de Saint-Mery. He was born in Martinique, and educated in France. He attempted to use census papers to understand the complexities of racial categories, particularly concentrating on the "gens de couleur." He- like many- was intrigued by the striations in castes which made it acceptable for free blacks to enslave kongos.

Saint-Mery went even further in his studies, examining the different "degrees of whiteness" :
Mulatre, Quateron, Metis, Mamelouque, Quarterrone, and sans-mele. In his studies, -studies that are considered rude and racist in spots today- he seems to draw the conclusion that no matter what the degree of whiteness, these individuals were prone to promiscuous behavior and lewd, immature conduct, hinting at an instilled incivility of white creoles, african slaves, creole slaves, and freedmen. He means to say that due to the local climate, and animalistic tendancies, non-whites cannot be truststed to think beyond the pursuit of pleasure. He also mentions their physiques- concluding that Creoles are the most desirable of slaves, as they are "born with physical and moral qualities which give them superiority over [others]."

...more pictures next time!

Sources:  Saint-Mery, Moreau de. tans. by John Garrigus. "Description topographique, physique, civile, politique, et historique de le partie francais de lisle Saint-Domingue." Philadelphia, 1797.

Shaw, Jenny. "Reality of "Race" in the Caribbean." In-class Lecture. 5 October 2011.

Religious Culture...One of the more obvious links between Saint-Domingue and Southern Louisiana

In congruence with Jon Sensbach's Rebecca's Revival, many different religions came into play in the culture of Saint-Domingue. Due to the factors of missionaries, slave owners, and slave resistance, the island became a melting pot of religion (Much like Southern Louisiana- more specifically, the city of New Orleans).

Bourbon Street, New Orleans, LA

Due to the Spanish and French settlement of the island, Catholicism played an integral part in the cultural formation of the island. This is not to say, however, that there was not a protestant presence on the island.  

While some slaves converted fully to some form of Christianity, others committed half-heartedly to this organized religous movement, maintaining their own anscetral religous practices in secrecy to elude punishment by their masters for disobedience. From this, situation, Christianity began to blend with old African rituals. Most popular on the island was the practice of Vodou.

Vodoun flag (a dwapo)

Vodou is an African word which translates into english as "spirit." Those who practice voudo, or "voduisants," follow male priests (houngans) and female priestesses (mambos), and as with most African practices (as well as religious practices on other continents), voudo followers rely a great deal on the power of their anscetors. The official language of Vodou is called "Fon," and they generally worship "Papa bon dieu."

As with Christianity, there are many factions of vodou: In Jamaica, and Trinidad-and-Tobago, vodou is called "Obeah." In other places, it is refered to as "Santeria."-and now...just for Fon....i mean fun:

Another faction of Vodou is the New Orleans form, Voodoo. Again, it differs slightly, as it has assimilated to Louisiana culture. It remains the same in that it it borrows religious images from other religions for its own purposes- namely, from Catholicism. Images of Catholic Angels and Saints are altered to serve as vodoun trinkets, etc.

Voodoo has become a popular topic in many ways in today's world. New Orleans is often thought of as the hub of such practices. This is perpetuated by hollywood...

Sometimes through brightly-colored song and dance:

Other times, by grimly-etched shadowy figures...





The New Orleans AFL team is even named for Voodoo...which is ironic, considering that the NOLA NFL team is The Saints...

Voodoo (AFL) vs. Saints (NFL)

...And multiple slave-manned plantations in Louisiana (some in New Orleans, some in St. James Parish, etc.) are known for their mystical, voodoo-linked stories such as that of the French Quarter's most famous socialite (and assumed voodoo practicer), Madame Lalaurie.

Indeed, voodoo or "vodou" has made quite the impact on Southern Louisiana, as it was carried from the Caribbean isles to New Orleans by Afro-caribbean slaves and immigrants...one of many connections between Louisiana and Saint-Domingue. 

Sources: www.google.com/imghp

www.youtube.com

Corbett, Bob. "An Overview on Haitian Voodoo." Class Lecture Outline. Webster.edu: Haiti: Voodoo. http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/voodoo/overview.htm

Shaw, Jenny. "Idigenous Caribbean Religions." Class Lecture. 28 Sept 2011.

Sensbach, Jon. Rebecca's Revival. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006.

a review: a closer examination of the politics, religion, and economics that shaped the island...

The Spanish controlled the Island of Hispaniola (or as they called it, “Santo Domingo”) from whence it was established. They focused on settling the Eastern side of the island, leaving the western side of Santo Domingo available to settlement by French buccaneers. The buccaneers had originally settled on the Ile de la Tortue (Tortuga), and expanded to the mainland of Santo Domingo (aka Hispaniola/Grande Terre). The Western side of the island became known as Saint-Domingue, and was officially given to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), which ended the Nine Year's War (Louis XIV's push to expand and cement his Kingdom).

Treaty of Ryswick

Things got organized by men among the buccaneers such as Bertrand d'Orgeron, who recruited many families to Saint Domingue under the pretense of economical prosperity through agriculture, more specifically, in sugar and tobacco. This created the need for irrigation systems, and of course, as stated in the previous blog, need for extensive man-power.

This brings us to one of the most important pieces of legislature in Saint-Domingue history: The Code Noir.

The 1685 “Code Noir” was a 60-article document inspired by the French Minister of Finances, Jean-Baptiste Colbert.





Colonists were well-aware of the fact that they were outnumbered by slaves, and hoped for some kind of legal structure to prevent any sort of rebellion, which -at any scale- would have been difficult to handle.

The articles were ratified by Louis XIV, and contained instructions as to religion (namely, intolerance for anyone -free or not- to practice anything other than Catholicism), treatment of slaves (in the case of insubordination, etc.), restrictions upon slaves (for example, they were not allowed to bear arms, or to sell products they farmed), and rights of freemen.

Blatant disregard for the Code (on the part of both whites and blacks) created an environment of conflict, and Saint- Domingue maintained its high slave-mortality rate. Local landowners began to take matters into their own hands, passing their own restrictions and inflicting punishments of their own jurisdiction.

Meanwhile, in continental France, new documents had been drawn up as a result of the French Revolution. Documents such as, “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen,” contained the phrases, “liberty...and resistance to oppression,” which surely, inspired the actions of slaves in the coming Haitian Revolution. Freemen of Saint-Domingue educated themselves and other on such ideas.

These teachings came to fruition on August 21^st of 1791.

Slaves were led into action by leaders of both the military and the religious persuasions. White plantation owners and their families were so outnumbered, that they were very easily overcome by the violence. Some owners were fortunate enough to be warned by their slaves of the impending attacks, but most were brutally, and fatally effected. Thousands of whites died, and plantations were pillaged; burned to the ground.

In an attempt to preserve the French economical interest in the island, the French Assembly sent 6,000 soldiers onto the isle. The Spanish joined the side of the slaves, and then, the British arrived on the island. Once that happened, some slaves decided to fight for the French, provided that all of the slaves would be granted their freedom. French Civil Commissioner (and abolitionist), Leger-Felicite Sonthonax declared that this would be the case if the French found victory in the battle for the possession of Saint-Domingue. A fore-runner in this group of slaves was Toussaint L'Ouverture.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Like most, he was a former slave who had originally fought for the Spanish. Under his command, the British expeditionary forces were defeated, and by his hand, (as well as the hands of a few French generals) the slaves were freed on January 3^rd or 1801.

L'Ouverture created the Saint-Domingue constitution, which- among other things- claimed that he would be governor for life. When Napoleon heard of this, he sent an army (led by Charles Leclerq). L'Ouverture was betrayed by his closest allies (namely Jean-Jacques Dessalines), and was captured. He was shipped to France, and died in prison.

 

Jean-Jacques Dessalines



Unbeknownst to L'Ouverture's former allies, Napoleon was intent upon resorting slavery. When Dessalines found out, he deflected back to his original side. On the first day of 1804, -after a trying battle against the French colonial army- Dessalines declared Saint-Domingue's independence, renaming it Haiti.





Sources:  http://www.jacobite.ca/documents/1697ryswick.htm Articles from the Treaty of Ryswick

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Images Images

Garrigus, John."Before Haiti: Race and Citizens in Saint-Domingue." [New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002].

http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/335/ The Code Noir



Hispaniola to Haiti: a brief overview of Saint-Domingue History...

Between 1659 and 1804, the nation known today as Haiti, was known as Saint-Domingue...
      

In December of 1492, Christopher Columbus claimed this same Caribbean island, (originally settled by the native Arawaks, Tainos, and Caribs) dubbing it “Hispaniola”- which translates from Latin to English as “The Spanish Island.” The Spanish controlled the Island of Hispaniola until the seventeenth century, when Pirate settlements and trade bases began spreading from the Island of Tortuga (or Ile de Tortue in Spanish) to the somewhat neglected, western side of the Grand Terre (Hispaniola mainland). What with the influx of piracy by French “boucaniers” or “buccaneers,” the Spanish conceded power of the Western-most part of the island to the French government in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick. It became known as Saint- Domingue.

                                       

An aside:

[The Treaty of Ryswick (shown above) as activated to upon the settlement of the Nine Years War between France and the allies of England, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire (Also known as the Great Alliance). In the treaty, France not only gained full control over Saint-Domingue, also retained the Pondicherry Territory of India and, interestingly enough, the province of Nova Scotia.  Almost Sixty years later, Nova Scotia history plays a large role in the settlement of Acadians in Louisiana, particularly in what are called the “River Road” parishes; a connection to be further examined later in this blog. …but I digress…]

Back to the buccaneers…

Among these swashbucklers and bootleggers, was a man by the name of Bertrand d’Orgeron. His promotion of tobacco planting, combined with the sugar industry supported the economy of Saint- Domingue, which despite being interrupted by the Seven Years War, expanded in the 1760s. In the Eighteenth century, Saint-Domingue became known as the “Jewel of the Antilles,” as it was one of the wealthiest colonies of the French Empire. Other major markets of the economy included: Indigo and Cotton, as well as coffee.

In fact, by the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced the overwhelming majority of the sugar and coffee consumed by Europe. Amazing, considering the fact that the area is roughly the size of the state of Maryland, as well as the treacherousness of Caribbean-European trade routes.

Of course, this caused a surge in the amount of man power needed to accommodate for the high demand of Saint-Domingue products.

 Nearly 800,000 African Natives populated the area at this time, with an added growth of 40,000 slaves being brought over every year. By my calculation, this would have counted for roughly 96% of the total Saint-Domingue population. An essential enslaved-to-white colonial ratio of 24:1.This dense population presented a number of problems. Unsanitary conditions cause European diseases to spread like wildfire. Yellow fever ran rampant. Slaves were treated cruelly, and talk of rebellion stirred the oppressed population.

On August 22, 1791, a large slave rebellion began (Touched off by the continental French Revolution and led by commanders such as Toussaint L’Ouverture). Within a year, this civil war led to a slave-controlled of Saint-Domingue. They had killed thousands of their former owners, and destroyed nearly 200 plantations.                                                               

Out of concern for their colonial income, France decided to send troops into Saint-Domingue. Slaves had already allied themselves to England (who was currently at war with France as well), and Spain would follow suit in the battle against French government for the Jewel of Antilles and her enslaved population.

The French realized that the only way to avoid military disaster was to free the slaves themselves, abolishing slavery in Saint-Domingue. Finally, in 1794, the French legislative assembly of the National Convention formally declared the abolishment of slavery in their colonial empire of Saint-Domingue.

Saint-Domingue would not be called Haiti until 1804, after Jean-Jacques Dessalines, (a creole who had fought both for and against France in his earlier years as a soldier, in part as lieutenant to Toussaint L’Overture) defeated Napoleon’s army at the Battle of Vertieres during the final course of the Haitian Revolution on November 18, 1803.     
 

Sources:

Gould, Clarence P. "Trade Between Windward Islands and Continental Colonies of France, 1683-1763," Mississippi Valley History Review Vol. 24. (1939). 31 August 2011. 473-490.
 <http://www.jstor.org/pss/1892496>

Sullivan, Blair and Geoffrey Symcox. "Christopher Columbus and the Enterprise of the Indies: A Brief History with Documents." [New York: Bedford, 2005].

Garrigus, John D. "Before Haiti: Race and Citizens in Saint-Domingue." [New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002].

 

      

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/HabitationSaintDomingue.jpg